by Mary Harrsch © 2025
We discussed various theories that provide explanations for the disappearance of megafauna in the Americas. But, let’s revisit our comparative timeline. In both hemispheres, nomadic hunting groups began to settle along coasts and rivers as megafauna populations dwindled. However, there was almost a 2,000-year gap between the time these settlements appeared in Eurasia than such settlements appeared in the Americas.
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A reproduction of a large riverine catfish known as a Goonch (Bagarius yarrelli) found in rivers in the Indian subcontinent that I photographed at the National Geographic Museum in Washington D.C. in 2015. Catfish have flourished for approximately 120 million years, dating back to the Early Cretaceous period. They're one of the oldest and most successful groups of bony fish, having evolved during the age of dinosaurs and survived through multiple mass extinction events. Today, there are about 3,000 known species of catfish spread across diverse habitats worldwide, from tiny parasitic species less than an inch long to massive river giants weighing over 600 pounds. Their remarkable adaptability has allowed them to colonize freshwater environments on every continent except Antarctica, and some species have even adapted to brackish and saltwater environments. Their longevity as a lineage demonstrates their evolutionary success through changing global conditions over millions of years. Fish like these provided an alternate food source for migrants to the ancient Americas after megafauna began to dwindle. |
Coastal and riverine settlements in Eurasia began appearing as early as 12,000–10,000 BCE, particularly where resources like fish, shellfish, and wild grains were abundant. Just as in the Americas, waterways provided food, transportation, and fertile land, making them prime locations for early human settlements. However, large-scale urbanization in Eurasia occurred much earlier than in the Americas, primarily due to earlier domestication of crops and animals.
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1. Early Coastal and Riverine Settlements (12,000–5,000 BCE)
Before full-scale agriculture, early settlements formed around rivers, lakes, and coasts where hunting, fishing, and plant gathering were sustainable.
Middle East (Fertile Crescent)
• Natufian Culture (12,500–9,500 BCE)
o One of the earliest known sedentary cultures in the Levant, living near the Jordan River, Sea of Galilee, and Mediterranean coast.
o They harvested wild grains (precursors to wheat and barley) and hunted game.
o Early experiments with proto-agriculture led to the first farming villages.
• Neolithic Mesopotamia (9,000–6,000 BCE)
o The earliest villages, like Çayönü (Turkey) and Jericho (Palestine), appeared near rivers and springs.
o By 6,000 BCE, farming settlements were common along the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, leading to the first irrigation-based civilizations.
South Asia
• Mehrgarh (7,000 BCE, Indus Valley, Pakistan)
o Early settlement near the Bolan River, where people farmed barley and herded animals.
o This was a precursor to the Indus Valley Civilization (Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro).
East Asia
• Peiligang Culture (7,000–5,000 BCE, China)
o Settlements appeared along the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers, growing millet and rice.
o The earliest domesticated rice was grown in the lower Yangtze by 6,500 BCE.
• Jomon Culture (10,000–300 BCE, Japan)
o The Jomon people built coastal settlements early on, relying on fish, shellfish, and wild plants.
o Unlike most early societies, they practiced long-term sedentism without farming.
Europe
• Danube & Balkan Settlements (7,000–4,000 BCE)
o Early farming villages appeared along the Danube River and its tributaries.
o The Starčevo and Cucuteni-Trypillia cultures were some of Europe's earliest river-based societies.
• Atlantic & Baltic Coasts (6,000–4,000 BCE)
o Scandinavian Mesolithic coastal groups lived off fish and shellfish, later transitioning to agriculture.
o The Ertebølle culture (Denmark, 5,000 BCE) thrived on seafood.
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2. Urbanization Along Rivers (4,000–2,000 BCE)
By this time, large-scale settlements had developed near major river systems, forming the world’s first civilizations.
Mesopotamia (Sumer, c. 3,100 BCE)
• Cities like Uruk and Ur developed along the Tigris and Euphrates, using irrigation for farming.
Indus Valley (Harappa & Mohenjo-Daro, c. 2,600 BCE)
• Large planned cities arose along the Indus and Sarasvati Rivers, featuring drainage systems and trade networks.
China (Yellow & Yangtze Rivers, c. 2,000 BCE)
• The Xia and Shang dynasties emerged along the Yellow River, where millet and rice farming sustained cities.
Egypt (Nile River, c. 3,100 BCE)
• Pharaohs unified settlements along the Nile, creating one of the earliest centralized states.
Settlements began appearing along the coasts and rivers of ancient America as early as 10,000 BCE, with many of the earliest sites focusing on rich aquatic and plant resources rather than agriculture. Over time, these settlements became more permanent and complex, particularly where food sources were abundant and reliable. Here’s a broad timeline of early coastal and riverine settlements across the Americas:
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1. Early Coastal and Riverine Settlements (10,000–3,000 BCE)
Before large-scale agriculture, people settled in areas with abundant seafood, wetland plants, and game.
North America
• Pacific Northwest (c. 10,000 BCE–Contact Period)
o Early groups settled along the coast, rivers, and estuaries, relying on salmon runs, shellfish, and marine mammals.
o Permanent villages were built later (~3000 BCE), with large plank houses and extensive trade networks.
• California Coast (c. 8,000 BCE–Contact Period)
o Chumash and other coastal groups developed fishing villages and shellfish gathering economies.
• Eastern Woodlands & Mississippi River (c. 6,000 BCE–1,000 CE)
o Groups settled near rivers and lakes, engaging in seasonal fishing and plant gathering.
o By 2,000 BCE, they cultivated local plants like sunflower, maygrass, and goosefoot in river valleys.
Mesoamerica
• Gulf of Mexico Coast & Southern Rivers (c. 5,000 BCE–1,500 BCE)
o Early farming villages appeared near rivers, focusing on maize, beans, and squash.
o The Olmec civilization (~1,500 BCE) built large ceremonial centers along rivers.
South America
• Peruvian Coast (c. 7,000–3,000 BCE)
o The earliest fishing villages (like Caral-Supe, c. 3,000 BCE) relied on marine resources while cultivating cotton, gourds, and beans.
• Amazon Basin (c. 8,000–2,000 BCE)
o Small villages formed along rivers, practicing forest management and fishing before full-scale farming.
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2. Large-Scale Settlements and Civilization (3,000 BCE–1,000 CE)
After thousands of years of small village life, major societies formed around rivers and coasts.
North America
• Mississippian Cultures (c. 800 CE–1600 CE)
o Large mound-building societies (e.g., Cahokia) arose along the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers, supporting tens of thousands of people.
Mesoamerica
• Olmec Civilization (c. 1,500 BCE–400 BCE)
o The Olmec built large cities and ceremonial centers along the Coatzacoalcos River.
• Maya Cities (c. 1,000 BCE–900 CE)
o The Maya developed extensive cities along rivers and lakes, using wetland agriculture (chinampas).
South America
• Andean Civilizations (3,000 BCE–1,500 CE)
o Early cities like Caral-Supe (Peru) formed near rivers in arid coastal regions.
o Later, the Moche, Chimu, and Inca built massive irrigation systems.
• Amazonian Settlements (1,000 BCE–1,500 CE)
o Large riverine societies, such as the mound-building Marajoara culture, thrived in the Amazon before European contact.
I asked ChatGPT, “Would you attribute this 2,000-year difference between coastal settlements in Eurasia and coastal settlements in the Americas to differences in population density and/or the super abundance of megafauna in the Americas compared to small numbers of human predators?
“Yes, the 2,000-year lag in coastal and riverine settlement development between Eurasia and the Americas can be largely attributed to differences in population density and ecological dynamics, particularly the superabundance of megafauna in the Americas and the low initial human population. Here’s why:
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1. Lower Initial Population Density in the Americas
• Eurasia had a much longer period of human occupation (Homo sapiens reached Eurasia ~60,000–50,000 BCE, possibly earlier, and interacted with Neanderthals and Denisovans).
• The Americas, by contrast, were the last continents to be populated (~20,000–15,000 BCE, possibly earlier, but still significantly later than Eurasia).
• Lower population density meant less pressure for early humans in the Americas to settle permanently—they could remain mobile hunters for a longer period without exhausting local resources.
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2. The Megafauna Effect in the Americas
• The Americas had an exceptional abundance of megafauna (mammoths, mastodons, giant sloths, glyptodons, saber-toothed cats, etc.).
• These large animals provided a reliable, high-calorie food source that reduced the need for intensive fishing, plant gathering, or early farming.
• In Eurasia, large game had already been heavily hunted or adapted to human pressure by the time permanent settlements began forming (~12,000 BCE).
• In the Americas, megafauna remained abundant until around 10,000 BCE, when they rapidly went extinct—likely due to a combination of human hunting and climate change.
Impact on Settlement Timing:• While Eurasian hunter-gatherers relied more on fish, small game, and plant foods earlier, fostering early settlement, American hunter-gatherers had little incentive to settle until megafauna populations collapsed.
• Once the megafauna disappeared, human groups were forced to disperse in search of smaller, harder-to-hunt prey, delaying the development of large, sedentary coastal and riverine communities.
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Conclusion
The 2,000-year difference in the appearance of coastal and riverine settlements between Eurasia and the Americas is best explained by two major factors:
1. Low initial human population density in the Americas, which reduced resource competition and delayed settlement.
2. The abundance of megafauna, which provided a temporary, easy food source that kept early humans highly mobile.
Once megafauna disappeared (~10,000 BCE), humans in the Americas were forced to rely more on smaller game, fish, and plants, leading to a gradual shift toward coastal and riverine settlements—but still on a later timeline than in Eurasia.”
Just to be clear on these points, I asked ChatGPT, “You mentioned earlier that megafauna actually disappeared sooner in the Americas than they did in Eurasia. Had the numbers of megafauna in Eurasia, though, already fallen to the point Eurasian populations had already turned to alternate food sources before the megafauna in the Americas disappeared?”
“Yes, exactly. By the time American megafauna vanished (~11,000–10,000 BCE), Eurasian megafauna populations had already been declining for tens of thousands of years, forcing human populations in Eurasia to shift to alternate food sources long before American populations had to.
Eurasia: A Slow Decline in Megafauna → Earlier Food Diversification
• Eurasian megafauna populations had been in a long, gradual decline since at least 40,000–30,000 BCE, due to:
o Continuous hunting pressure from early Homo sapiens (who arrived ~60,000–50,000 BCE).
o Climate shifts during the Ice Age that reduced habitat availability.
o Competition with smaller, faster-reproducing animals (like deer, wild cattle, and boar).
• By the time early sedentary cultures appeared (~12,000 BCE, Natufians in the Levant, Yangtze River fishers, etc.), megafauna were already scarce.
• Humans had already turned to smaller game, fishing, and wild cereals, accelerating the transition to agriculture and permanent settlements.
The Americas: A Sudden Collapse → Delayed Food Diversification
• When humans entered the Americas (~20,000–15,000 BCE), megafauna were still abundant because they had evolved without human predators.
• Instead of needing to rely on smaller game, fishing, or plant gathering, early Americans had easy access to calorie-rich megafauna for thousands of years.
• When American megafauna disappeared rapidly (~11,000–10,000 BCE), human populations suddenly had to adapt, shifting toward:
o Smaller game (deer, rabbits, birds).
o Increased reliance on fish and shellfish (leading to coastal settlements).
o Gathering and, eventually, domestication of plants (squash, maize, beans).
• This transition took time, delaying the emergence of large permanent settlements by ~2,000 years compared to Eurasia.
Conclusion: The Key Difference Was Timing
• Eurasian populations had already adapted to smaller game, fishing, and plant gathering long before their last megafauna disappeared.
• American populations still depended heavily on megafauna right up until their sudden extinction, which forced a delayed transition to alternative food sources and settlements.
So yes, Eurasian megafauna populations had already fallen to low enough numbers that people had diversified their food sources before the last megafauna vanished in the Americas.”
Then I asked, "Were marine species more abundant in the Americas compared to Eurasia so that coastal and riverine settlements in the Americas did not need to turn to agriculture as soon as those in Eurasia?"
"“Yes, marine species were generally more abundant and accessible in the Americas than in many parts of Eurasia, which delayed the need for agriculture in coastal and riverine settlements. Several key factors contributed to this:
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1. Richer Marine Ecosystems in the Americas
The coastal waters of the Americas—especially along the Pacific Northwest, California, Peru, and parts of the Gulf Coast—were incredibly productive due to:
• Upwelling zones that brought nutrient-rich waters to the surface, supporting vast fish populations.
• Large, predictable runs of salmon in the Pacific Northwest and abundant anchovies and shellfish along the Pacific Coast of South America.
• Dense populations of seals, sea lions, and seabirds, supplementing the diets of coastal peoples.
This meant that coastal societies could sustain large populations for thousands of years without farming, leading to the emergence of complex non-agricultural societies (like the Pacific Northwest Coast cultures and the Maritime Andes).________________________________________
2. Eurasia’s Coastal and Riverine Resources Were More Limited
While Eurasia had productive fishing zones (like the Mediterranean, the Nile, and the Yangtze), they did not offer the same level of year-round abundance as many American coastal regions.
• Mediterranean and European coasts had seasonal fish migrations, requiring more effort and technology to exploit consistently.
• Many Eurasian river systems had fewer large, predictable fish runs compared to those in the Pacific Northwest or Peru.
• The more seasonally variable climate in many parts of Eurasia made it harder to rely solely on fish and shellfish.
As a result, Eurasian coastal and riverine populations turned to agriculture sooner to stabilize their food supply.________________________________________
3. Consequences: Agriculture Delayed in the Americas but Not Absent
• In the Andes, coastal populations remained marine-based for millennia, but they still incorporated early farming (~3,000 BCE) because the arid coast made foraging difficult.
• In the Pacific Northwest, agriculture never developed because of the abundance of fish, shellfish, and game. Instead, they developed complex societies with hierarchies, slavery, and monumental art—without farming.
• Along the Mississippi River and Mesoamerican coasts, marine resources were plentiful but not sufficient to sustain large populations alone, so agriculture developed earlier (~3,500–2,500 BCE).
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Conclusion: The Americas Had More Marine Abundance, Delaying Agriculture
• Marine resources in the Americas were richer and more reliable, allowing many societies to thrive without farming for thousands of years.
• Eurasian coastal and riverine environments had more seasonal variability and fewer predictable food sources, pushing societies toward agriculture sooner.
• This difference helped delay the emergence of agriculture-based civilizations in coastal areas of the Americas compared to Eurasia.
This is why many American coastal societies remained foragers and fishers long after agriculture had already taken hold in the Old World—they simply didn’t need it as early!"
Then I asked, "How much time elapsed between the beginnings of agriculture in Eurasia compared to the time populations in the Americas began to use some form of agriculture?
Agriculture began earlier in Eurasia than in the Americas, with a time gap of about 3,000–4,000 years between the earliest domestication events in each region.
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1. The Beginnings of Agriculture in Eurasia (~10,000 BCE)
• The first clear signs of plant domestication appeared in the Fertile Crescent around 10,000 BCE. Early crops included:
o Wheat (einkorn and emmer)
o Barley
o Lentils and peas
o Flax (for fiber and oil)
• Around the same time (or slightly later), agriculture independently developed in China (millet and rice), the Indian subcontinent (barley and wheat), and later in parts of Africa.
By 8,000 BCE, permanent agricultural villages like Jericho and Çatalhöyük were thriving.________________________________________
2. The Beginnings of Agriculture in the Americas (~7,000–5,000 BCE)
• The first evidence of plant domestication in the Americas appears around 7,000–5,000 BCE, with the cultivation of:
o Squash (by 8,000 BCE in Mesoamerica, possibly earlier in South America)
o Maize (corn) (~7,000 BCE from teosinte in Mexico)
o Beans (~5,000 BCE in the Andes and Mesoamerica)
o Manioc (cassava) (~6,000 BCE in the Amazon)
Unlike Eurasia, where large cereal grains were available early, American domesticated crops took longer to develop into staple foods, leading to a more gradual transition to full agricultural societies.________________________________________
3. The Time Gap Between Eurasia and the Americas
Region Earliest Agriculture Fully Agricultural Villages
Eurasia (Fertile Crescent, China, India) ~10,000 BCE ~8,000 BCE
Mesoamerica (Mexico, Guatemala) ~ 7,000 BCE ~3,000 BCE
Andes (Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador) ~ 6,000 BCE ~2,500 BCE
Eastern North America (Mississippi Valley) ~ 3,500 BCE ~1,500 BCE
The difference in early domestication is about 3,000 years, but the gap in full agricultural villages is closer to 4,000–5,000 years.________________________________________
4. Why Was Agriculture Later in the Americas?
• Eurasia had more large-seeded grasses (wheat, barley, rice) that were easier to domesticate and provided high yields.
• American plants required more genetic modification (e.g., maize took thousands of years to be bred into a useful crop).
• Marine and wild food sources were more abundant in many parts of the Americas, reducing the urgency for farming.
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Conclusion: A 3,000–4,000 Year Lag
Agriculture started around 10,000 BCE in Eurasia, while in the Americas, early domestication began around 7,000 BCE but took longer to lead to fully agricultural societies. The earliest farming villages in the Americas (3,000–2,500 BCE) appeared thousands of years after those in Eurasia (~8,000 BCE).
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