by Mary Harrsch © 2025
For over 400 years, the royal retinue of Silla's kings lived with the knowledge that their lives were formally tied to the monarch's. The ritual of sunjang—live burial to serve the king in the afterlife—was their destined end. But a recent excavation in Hwangnam-dong, revealing the splayed remains of a sacrificed individual, shows that not all victims went quietly into the night. This single body provides chilling new evidence of the practice's ultimate brutality.
The Silla sunjang ritual was rooted in the shamanistic and aristocratic belief in a hierarchical afterlife. It primarily targeted the royal retinue (servants, guards, officials, spouses). It is historically documented in texts like the Samguk Sagi and supported by archaeology. It was finally abolished in 502 CE by King Jijeung, likely due to the influence of Buddhism and Confucianism, marking a significant step in the cultural and ethical evolution of the Silla kingdom.
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Gold crown of Silla Kingdom 6th century CE at the National Museum of Korea courtesy of Wikimedia Commons contributor Gary Todd
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Gold hat of Silla Kingdom at the National Museum of Korea courtesy of Wikimedia Commons contributor Gary Todd
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This has led archaeologists to rule out death by blunt force or stabbing. On the contrary, In some Gaya tomb excavations, skeletons have been found in postures that are not contorted or suggestive of a struggle, but rather in a composed, seated, or reclined position. This is a key piece of evidence that suggests the individuals may not have been conscious or struggling at the time of burial. However, in at least one famous Gaya tomb (the Jisandong Tomb Complex in Daegu), some sacrificial victims were found with their hands tied behind their backs. This is the most unambiguous evidence of a victim who was not willing and had to be restrained, making a peaceful, sedated death highly unlikely.
In some tombs, multiple skeletons were found jumbled together in a pit. While this could indicate being thrown in carelessly after death, it is also consistent with a mass burial of victims who were incapacitated and dumped together, or with a final struggle in a confined space.
The "splayed" body found in the recent excavation is not a complete anomaly, but it is a powerful piece of evidence that confirms what the Gaya finds and scattered reports had already hinted at: the practice of sunjang could be, and often was, a brutal and terrifying act of violence, not just a ritual of passive sedation.
King Jijeung, who abolished this brutal practice, was not merely a ruler who happened to pass one merciful law. His reign demonstrates a consistent pattern of 'benevolent governance' inspired by Confucian and Buddhist precepts as seen in his establishment of a state granary system called the "Ever-Normal Granary" (Jangchang or Sangpyeongchang) to stabilize grain prices and provide famine relief. He also ordered tax exemptions for people in regions struck by famine or other natural disasters and gave alms to the poor and starving indicating he directed state intervention to help the most vulnerable citizens.
He ordered the compilation of a formal legal code to move away from arbitrary rule and towards a more predictable and just system for all citizens. He expanded the Bone Rank System (Kolpumje) to further solidify this rigid aristocratic system. While not "merciful" in a modern egalitarian sense, from the perspective of the state, creating a clear and regulated social order can be seen as a way to reduce internal conflict and chaos among the elite, which ultimately benefited the stability of the kingdom as a whole.Sedated or Struggling to Survive? The Grisly Archaeological Mystery of Silla's Sunjang
The Silla sunjang ritual was rooted in the shamanistic and aristocratic belief in a hierarchical afterlife. It primarily targeted the royal retinue (servants, guards, officials, spouses). It is historically documented in texts like the Samguk Sagi and supported by archaeology. It was finally abolished in 502 CE by King Jijeung, likely due to the influence of Buddhism and Confucianism, marking a significant step in the cultural and ethical evolution of the Silla kingdom.
There is no direct textual or archaeological evidence proving the sacrificed individuals were drugged or strangled before interment. Examinations of human remains from sacrificial pits in other Korean contexts (like the Juicide practice of the Gaya Confederacy ——Silla and Gaya were neighboring kingdoms with intense cultural and political exchange. Their elite burial practices were very similar) show a lack of perimortem (around the time of death) trauma like broken skulls, cut marks from weapons, or fractured limbs.
This has led archaeologists to rule out death by blunt force or stabbing. On the contrary, In some Gaya tomb excavations, skeletons have been found in postures that are not contorted or suggestive of a struggle, but rather in a composed, seated, or reclined position. This is a key piece of evidence that suggests the individuals may not have been conscious or struggling at the time of burial. However, in at least one famous Gaya tomb (the Jisandong Tomb Complex in Daegu), some sacrificial victims were found with their hands tied behind their backs. This is the most unambiguous evidence of a victim who was not willing and had to be restrained, making a peaceful, sedated death highly unlikely.
In some tombs, multiple skeletons were found jumbled together in a pit. While this could indicate being thrown in carelessly after death, it is also consistent with a mass burial of victims who were incapacitated and dumped together, or with a final struggle in a confined space.
The "splayed" body found in the recent excavation is not a complete anomaly, but it is a powerful piece of evidence that confirms what the Gaya finds and scattered reports had already hinted at: the practice of sunjang could be, and often was, a brutal and terrifying act of violence, not just a ritual of passive sedation.
King Jijeung, who abolished this brutal practice, was not merely a ruler who happened to pass one merciful law. His reign demonstrates a consistent pattern of 'benevolent governance' inspired by Confucian and Buddhist precepts as seen in his establishment of a state granary system called the "Ever-Normal Granary" (Jangchang or Sangpyeongchang) to stabilize grain prices and provide famine relief. He also ordered tax exemptions for people in regions struck by famine or other natural disasters and gave alms to the poor and starving indicating he directed state intervention to help the most vulnerable citizens.
He ordered the compilation of a formal legal code to move away from arbitrary rule and towards a more predictable and just system for all citizens. He expanded the Bone Rank System (Kolpumje) to further solidify this rigid aristocratic system. While not "merciful" in a modern egalitarian sense, from the perspective of the state, creating a clear and regulated social order can be seen as a way to reduce internal conflict and chaos among the elite, which ultimately benefited the stability of the kingdom as a whole.Sedated or Struggling to Survive? The Grisly Archaeological Mystery of Silla's Sunjang
The Silla sunjang ritual was rooted in the shamanistic and aristocratic belief in a hierarchical afterlife. It primarily targeted the royal retinue (servants, guards, officials, spouses). It is historically documented in texts like the Samguk Sagi and supported by archaeology. It was finally abolished in 502 CE by King Jijeung, likely due to the influence of Buddhism and Confucianism, marking a significant step in the cultural and ethical evolution of the Silla kingdom.
There is no direct textual or archaeological evidence proving the sacrificed individuals were drugged or strangled before interment. Examinations of human remains from sacrificial pits in other Korean contexts (like the Juicide practice of the Gaya Confederacy ——Silla and Gaya were neighboring kingdoms with intense cultural and political exchange. Their elite burial practices were very similar) show a lack of perimortem (around the time of death) trauma like broken skulls, cut marks from weapons, or fractured limbs.
This has led archaeologists to rule out death by blunt force or stabbing. On the contrary, In some Gaya tomb excavations, skeletons have been found in postures that are not contorted or suggestive of a struggle, but rather in a composed, seated, or reclined position. This is a key piece of evidence that suggests the individuals may not have been conscious or struggling at the time of burial. However, in at least one famous Gaya tomb (the Jisandong Tomb Complex in Daegu), some sacrificial victims were found with their hands tied behind their backs. This is the most unambiguous evidence of a victim who was not willing and had to be restrained, making a peaceful, sedated death highly unlikely.
In some tombs, multiple skeletons were found jumbled together in a pit. While this could indicate being thrown in carelessly after death, it is also consistent with a mass burial of victims who were incapacitated and dumped together, or with a final struggle in a confined space.
The "splayed" body found in the recent excavation is not a complete anomaly, but it is a powerful piece of evidence that confirms what the Gaya finds and scattered reports had already hinted at: the practice of sunjang could be, and often was, a brutal and terrifying act of violence, not just a ritual of passive sedation.
King Jijeung, who abolished this brutal practice, was not merely a ruler who happened to pass one merciful law. His reign demonstrates a consistent pattern of 'benevolent governance' inspired by Confucian and Buddhist precepts as seen in his establishment of a state granary system called the "Ever-Normal Granary" (Jangchang or Sangpyeongchang) to stabilize grain prices and provide famine relief. He also ordered tax exemptions for people in regions struck by famine or other natural disasters and gave alms to the poor and starving indicating he directed state intervention to help the most vulnerable citizens.
He ordered the compilation of a formal legal code to move away from arbitrary rule and towards a more predictable and just system for all citizens. He expanded the Bone Rank System (Kolpumje) to further solidify this rigid aristocratic system. While not "merciful" in a modern egalitarian sense, from the perspective of the state, creating a clear and regulated social order can be seen as a way to reduce internal conflict and chaos among the elite, which ultimately benefited the stability of the kingdom as a whole.Sedated or Struggling to Survive? The Grisly Archaeological Mystery of Silla's Sunjang
The Silla sunjang ritual was rooted in the shamanistic and aristocratic belief in a hierarchical afterlife. It primarily targeted the royal retinue (servants, guards, officials, spouses). It is historically documented in texts like the Samguk Sagi and supported by archaeology. It was finally abolished in 502 CE by King Jijeung, likely due to the influence of Buddhism and Confucianism, marking a significant step in the cultural and ethical evolution of the Silla kingdom.
There is no direct textual or archaeological evidence proving the sacrificed individuals were drugged or strangled before interment. Examinations of human remains from sacrificial pits in other Korean contexts (like the Juicide practice of the Gaya Confederacy ——Silla and Gaya were neighboring kingdoms with intense cultural and political exchange. Their elite burial practices were very similar) show a lack of perimortem (around the time of death) trauma like broken skulls, cut marks from weapons, or fractured limbs.
This has led archaeologists to rule out death by blunt force or stabbing. On the contrary, In some Gaya tomb excavations, skeletons have been found in postures that are not contorted or suggestive of a struggle, but rather in a composed, seated, or reclined position. This is a key piece of evidence that suggests the individuals may not have been conscious or struggling at the time of burial. However, in at least one famous Gaya tomb (the Jisandong Tomb Complex in Daegu), some sacrificial victims were found with their hands tied behind their backs. This is the most unambiguous evidence of a victim who was not willing and had to be restrained, making a peaceful, sedated death highly unlikely.
In some tombs, multiple skeletons were found jumbled together in a pit. While this could indicate being thrown in carelessly after death, it is also consistent with a mass burial of victims who were incapacitated and dumped together, or with a final struggle in a confined space.
The "splayed" body found in the recent excavation is not a complete anomaly, but it is a powerful piece of evidence that confirms what the Gaya finds and scattered reports had already hinted at: the practice of sunjang could be, and often was, a brutal and terrifying act of violence, not just a ritual of passive sedation.
King Jijeung, who abolished this brutal practice, was not merely a ruler who happened to pass one merciful law. His reign demonstrates a consistent pattern of 'benevolent governance' inspired by Confucian and Buddhist precepts as seen in his establishment of a state granary system called the "Ever-Normal Granary" (Jangchang or Sangpyeongchang) to stabilize grain prices and provide famine relief. He also ordered tax exemptions for people in regions struck by famine or other natural disasters and gave alms to the poor and starving indicating he directed state intervention to help the most vulnerable citizens.
He ordered the compilation of a formal legal code to move away from arbitrary rule and towards a more predictable and just system for all citizens. He expanded the Bone Rank System (Kolpumje) to further solidify this rigid aristocratic system. While not "merciful" in a modern egalitarian sense, from the perspective of the state, creating a clear and regulated social order can be seen as a way to reduce internal conflict and chaos among the elite, which ultimately benefited the stability of the kingdom as a whole.Sedated or Struggling to Survive? The Grisly Archaeological Mystery of Silla's Sunjang
The Silla sunjang ritual was rooted in the shamanistic and aristocratic belief in a hierarchical afterlife. It primarily targeted the royal retinue (servants, guards, officials, spouses). It is historically documented in texts like the Samguk Sagi and supported by archaeology. It was finally abolished in 502 CE by King Jijeung, likely due to the influence of Buddhism and Confucianism, marking a significant step in the cultural and ethical evolution of the Silla kingdom.
There is no direct textual or archaeological evidence proving the sacrificed individuals were drugged or strangled before interment. Examinations of human remains from sacrificial pits in other Korean contexts (like the Juicide practice of the Gaya Confederacy ——Silla and Gaya were neighboring kingdoms with intense cultural and political exchange. Their elite burial practices were very similar) show a lack of perimortem (around the time of death) trauma like broken skulls, cut marks from weapons, or fractured limbs.
This has led archaeologists to rule out death by blunt force or stabbing. On the contrary, In some Gaya tomb excavations, skeletons have been found in postures that are not contorted or suggestive of a struggle, but rather in a composed, seated, or reclined position. This is a key piece of evidence that suggests the individuals may not have been conscious or struggling at the time of burial. However, in at least one famous Gaya tomb (the Jisandong Tomb Complex in Daegu), some sacrificial victims were found with their hands tied behind their backs. This is the most unambiguous evidence of a victim who was not willing and had to be restrained, making a peaceful, sedated death highly unlikely.
In some tombs, multiple skeletons were found jumbled together in a pit. While this could indicate being thrown in carelessly after death, it is also consistent with a mass burial of victims who were incapacitated and dumped together, or with a final struggle in a confined space.
The "splayed" body found in the recent excavation is not a complete anomaly, but it is a powerful piece of evidence that confirms what the Gaya finds and scattered reports had already hinted at: the practice of sunjang could be, and often was, a brutal and terrifying act of violence, not just a ritual of passive sedation.
King Jijeung, who abolished this brutal practice, was not merely a ruler who happened to pass one merciful law. His reign demonstrates a consistent pattern of 'benevolent governance' inspired by Confucian and Buddhist precepts as seen in his establishment of a state granary system called the "Ever-Normal Granary" (Jangchang or Sangpyeongchang) to stabilize grain prices and provide famine relief. He also ordered tax exemptions for people in regions struck by famine or other natural disasters and gave alms to the poor and starving indicating he directed state intervention to help the most vulnerable citizens.
He ordered the compilation of a formal legal code to move away from arbitrary rule and towards a more predictable and just system for all citizens. He expanded the Bone Rank System (Kolpumje) to further solidify this rigid aristocratic system. While not "merciful" in a modern egalitarian sense, from the perspective of the state, creating a clear and regulated social order can be seen as a way to reduce internal conflict and chaos among the elite, which ultimately benefited the stability of the kingdom as a whole.Sedated or Struggling to Survive? The Grisly Archaeological Mystery of Silla's Sunjang
The Silla sunjang ritual was rooted in the shamanistic and aristocratic belief in a hierarchical afterlife. It primarily targeted the royal retinue (servants, guards, officials, spouses). It is historically documented in texts like the Samguk Sagi and supported by archaeology. It was finally abolished in 502 CE by King Jijeung, likely due to the influence of Buddhism and Confucianism, marking a significant step in the cultural and ethical evolution of the Silla kingdom.
There is no direct textual or archaeological evidence proving the sacrificed individuals were drugged or strangled before interment. Examinations of human remains from sacrificial pits in other Korean contexts (like the Juicide practice of the Gaya Confederacy ——Silla and Gaya were neighboring kingdoms with intense cultural and political exchange. Their elite burial practices were very similar) show a lack of perimortem (around the time of death) trauma like broken skulls, cut marks from weapons, or fractured limbs.
This has led archaeologists to rule out death by blunt force or stabbing. On the contrary, In some Gaya tomb excavations, skeletons have been found in postures that are not contorted or suggestive of a struggle, but rather in a composed, seated, or reclined position. This is a key piece of evidence that suggests the individuals may not have been conscious or struggling at the time of burial. However, in at least one famous Gaya tomb (the Jisandong Tomb Complex in Daegu), some sacrificial victims were found with their hands tied behind their backs. This is the most unambiguous evidence of a victim who was not willing and had to be restrained, making a peaceful, sedated death highly unlikely.
In some tombs, multiple skeletons were found jumbled together in a pit. While this could indicate being thrown in carelessly after death, it is also consistent with a mass burial of victims who were incapacitated and dumped together, or with a final struggle in a confined space.
The "splayed" body found in the recent excavation is not a complete anomaly, but it is a powerful piece of evidence that confirms what the Gaya finds and scattered reports had already hinted at: the practice of sunjang could be, and often was, a brutal and terrifying act of violence, not just a ritual of passive sedation.
King Jijeung, who abolished this brutal practice, was not merely a ruler who happened to pass one merciful law. His reign demonstrates a consistent pattern of 'benevolent governance' inspired by Confucian and Buddhist precepts as seen in his establishment of a state granary system called the "Ever-Normal Granary" (Jangchang or Sangpyeongchang) to stabilize grain prices and provide famine relief. He also ordered tax exemptions for people in regions struck by famine or other natural disasters and gave alms to the poor and starving indicating he directed state intervention to help the most vulnerable citizens.
He ordered the compilation of a formal legal code to move away from arbitrary rule and towards a more predictable and just system for all citizens. He expanded the Bone Rank System (Kolpumje) to further solidify this rigid aristocratic system. While not "merciful" in a modern egalitarian sense, from the perspective of the state, creating a clear and regulated social order can be seen as a way to reduce internal conflict and chaos among the elite, which ultimately benefited the stability of the kingdom as a whole.Sedated or Struggling to Survive? The Grisly Archaeological Mystery of Silla's Sunjang
The Silla sunjang ritual was rooted in the shamanistic and aristocratic belief in a hierarchical afterlife. It primarily targeted the royal retinue (servants, guards, officials, spouses). It is historically documented in texts like the Samguk Sagi and supported by archaeology. It was finally abolished in 502 CE by King Jijeung, likely due to the influence of Buddhism and Confucianism, marking a significant step in the cultural and ethical evolution of the Silla kingdom.
There is no direct textual or archaeological evidence proving the sacrificed individuals were drugged or strangled before interment. Examinations of human remains from sacrificial pits in other Korean contexts (like the Juicide practice of the Gaya Confederacy ——Silla and Gaya were neighboring kingdoms with intense cultural and political exchange. Their elite burial practices were very similar) show a lack of perimortem (around the time of death) trauma like broken skulls, cut marks from weapons, or fractured limbs.
This has led archaeologists to rule out death by blunt force or stabbing. On the contrary, In some Gaya tomb excavations, skeletons have been found in postures that are not contorted or suggestive of a struggle, but rather in a composed, seated, or reclined position. This is a key piece of evidence that suggests the individuals may not have been conscious or struggling at the time of burial. However, in at least one famous Gaya tomb (the Jisandong Tomb Complex in Daegu), some sacrificial victims were found with their hands tied behind their backs. This is the most unambiguous evidence of a victim who was not willing and had to be restrained, making a peaceful, sedated death highly unlikely.
In some tombs, multiple skeletons were found jumbled together in a pit. While this could indicate being thrown in carelessly after death, it is also consistent with a mass burial of victims who were incapacitated and dumped together, or with a final struggle in a confined space.
The "splayed" body found in the recent excavation is not a complete anomaly, but it is a powerful piece of evidence that confirms what the Gaya finds and scattered reports had already hinted at: the practice of sunjang could be, and often was, a brutal and terrifying act of violence, not just a ritual of passive sedation.
King Jijeung, who abolished this brutal practice, was not merely a ruler who happened to pass one merciful law. His reign demonstrates a consistent pattern of 'benevolent governance' inspired by Confucian and Buddhist precepts as seen in his establishment of a state granary system called the "Ever-Normal Granary" (Jangchang or Sangpyeongchang) to stabilize grain prices and provide famine relief. He also ordered tax exemptions for people in regions struck by famine or other natural disasters and gave alms to the poor and starving indicating he directed state intervention to help the most vulnerable citizens.
He ordered the compilation of a formal legal code to move away from arbitrary rule and towards a more predictable and just system for all citizens. He expanded the Bone Rank System (Kolpumje) to further solidify this rigid aristocratic system. While not "merciful" in a modern egalitarian sense, from the perspective of the state, creating a clear and regulated social order can be seen as a way to reduce internal conflict and chaos among the elite, which ultimately benefited the stability of the kingdom as a whole.Sedated or Struggling to Survive? The Grisly Archaeological Mystery of Silla's Sunjang
The Silla sunjang ritual was rooted in the shamanistic and aristocratic belief in a hierarchical afterlife. It primarily targeted the royal retinue (servants, guards, officials, spouses). It is historically documented in texts like the Samguk Sagi and supported by archaeology. It was finally abolished in 502 CE by King Jijeung, likely due to the influence of Buddhism and Confucianism, marking a significant step in the cultural and ethical evolution of the Silla kingdom.
There is no direct textual or archaeological evidence proving the sacrificed individuals were drugged or strangled before interment. Examinations of human remains from sacrificial pits in other Korean contexts (like the Juicide practice of the Gaya Confederacy ——Silla and Gaya were neighboring kingdoms with intense cultural and political exchange. Their elite burial practices were very similar) show a lack of perimortem (around the time of death) trauma like broken skulls, cut marks from weapons, or fractured limbs.
This has led archaeologists to rule out death by blunt force or stabbing. On the contrary, In some Gaya tomb excavations, skeletons have been found in postures that are not contorted or suggestive of a struggle, but rather in a composed, seated, or reclined position. This is a key piece of evidence that suggests the individuals may not have been conscious or struggling at the time of burial. However, in at least one famous Gaya tomb (the Jisandong Tomb Complex in Daegu), some sacrificial victims were found with their hands tied behind their backs. This is the most unambiguous evidence of a victim who was not willing and had to be restrained, making a peaceful, sedated death highly unlikely.
In some tombs, multiple skeletons were found jumbled together in a pit. While this could indicate being thrown in carelessly after death, it is also consistent with a mass burial of victims who were incapacitated and dumped together, or with a final struggle in a confined space.
The "splayed" body found in the recent excavation is not a complete anomaly, but it is a powerful piece of evidence that confirms what the Gaya finds and scattered reports had already hinted at: the practice of sunjang could be, and often was, a brutal and terrifying act of violence, not just a ritual of passive sedation.
King Jijeung, who abolished this brutal practice, was not merely a ruler who happened to pass one merciful law. His reign demonstrates a consistent pattern of 'benevolent governance' inspired by Confucian and Buddhist precepts as seen in his establishment of a state granary system called the "Ever-Normal Granary" (Jangchang or Sangpyeongchang) to stabilize grain prices and provide famine relief. He also ordered tax exemptions for people in regions struck by famine or other natural disasters and gave alms to the poor and starving indicating he directed state intervention to help the most vulnerable citizens.
He ordered the compilation of a formal legal code to move away from arbitrary rule and towards a more predictable and just system for all citizens. He expanded the Bone Rank System (Kolpumje) to further solidify this rigid aristocratic system. While not "merciful" in a modern egalitarian sense, from the perspective of the state, creating a clear and regulated social order can be seen as a way to reduce internal conflict and chaos among the elite, which ultimately benefited the stability of the kingdom as a whole.Sedated or Struggling to Survive? The Grisly Archaeological Mystery of Silla's Sunjang
The Silla sunjang ritual was rooted in the shamanistic and aristocratic belief in a hierarchical afterlife. It primarily targeted the royal retinue (servants, guards, officials, spouses). It is historically documented in texts like the Samguk Sagi and supported by archaeology. It was finally abolished in 502 CE by King Jijeung, likely due to the influence of Buddhism and Confucianism, marking a significant step in the cultural and ethical evolution of the Silla kingdom.
There is no direct textual or archaeological evidence proving the sacrificed individuals were drugged or strangled before interment. Examinations of human remains from sacrificial pits in other Korean contexts (like the Juicide practice of the Gaya Confederacy ——Silla and Gaya were neighboring kingdoms with intense cultural and political exchange. Their elite burial practices were very similar) show a lack of perimortem (around the time of death) trauma like broken skulls, cut marks from weapons, or fractured limbs.
This has led archaeologists to rule out death by blunt force or stabbing. On the contrary, In some Gaya tomb excavations, skeletons have been found in postures that are not contorted or suggestive of a struggle, but rather in a composed, seated, or reclined position. This is a key piece of evidence that suggests the individuals may not have been conscious or struggling at the time of burial. However, in at least one famous Gaya tomb (the Jisandong Tomb Complex in Daegu), some sacrificial victims were found with their hands tied behind their backs. This is the most unambiguous evidence of a victim who was not willing and had to be restrained, making a peaceful, sedated death highly unlikely.
In some tombs, multiple skeletons were found jumbled together in a pit. While this could indicate being thrown in carelessly after death, it is also consistent with a mass burial of victims who were incapacitated and dumped together, or with a final struggle in a confined space.
The "splayed" body found in the recent excavation is not a complete anomaly, but it is a powerful piece of evidence that confirms what the Gaya finds and scattered reports had already hinted at: the practice of sunjang could be, and often was, a brutal and terrifying act of violence, not just a ritual of passive sedation.
King Jijeung, who abolished this brutal practice, was not merely a ruler who happened to pass one merciful law. His reign demonstrates a consistent pattern of 'benevolent governance' inspired by Confucian and Buddhist precepts as seen in his establishment of a state granary system called the "Ever-Normal Granary" (Jangchang or Sangpyeongchang) to stabilize grain prices and provide famine relief. He also ordered tax exemptions for people in regions struck by famine or other natural disasters and gave alms to the poor and starving indicating he directed state intervention to help the most vulnerable citizens.
He ordered the compilation of a formal legal code to move away from arbitrary rule and towards a more predictable and just system for all citizens. He expanded the Bone Rank System (Kolpumje) to further solidify this rigid aristocratic system. While not "merciful" in a modern egalitarian sense, from the perspective of the state, creating a clear and regulated social order can be seen as a way to reduce internal conflict and chaos among the elite, which ultimately benefited the stability of the kingdom as a whole.
References:
Barnes, G. L. (2001). State formation in Korea: Historical and archaeological perspectives. Routledge.
Barnes, G. L. (2015). Archaeology of East Asia: The rise of civilization in China, Korea and Japan. Oxbow Books.
Best, J. W. (2002). Buddhism and polity in early sixth-century Paekche. Korean Studies, 26(2), 165–215.
Gyeongju National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage. (n.d.). Excavation reports. Gyeongju.
Kim, B. (2012). The Samguk Sagi (E. J. Shultz & H. H. Kang, Trans.). Academy of Korean Studies Press. (Original work published 1145)
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